Chapter 5 - The Nautical Atmosphere

Successful model shipbuilding is not all mechanics. Modelers should possess a background knowledge of essential nautical practices that serve them well in the process of modeling. Good workmanship is very important, because when flagrant errors and nautical boners occur, the finished product looks ridiculous and amateurish.

Ship identification, rigging standards, correct flags and figureheads that provide the professional touch to the complete model, are discussed in this brief lesson which will furnish confidence to the modeler in every phase of modeling: from assembly of package kits to the Advanced Course on Research.

Standardization of Model Rigging

Lacking any overall authority to regulate and specify proper rigging, modelers often become confused concerning the best pattern to follow.

Now that the horrendous creature the ship out of water with all sails set- has gone out of fashion, the time is opportune for senior modelers to set up standards that exhibit the beauty and dignity of sailing ships. No other man-made object has portrayed such a panorama of beauty down through the centuries as sailing ships, and the onus is on us to preserve this beauty for future generations. Art and craftsmanship since time began have striven to portray objects of beauty in their natural surrounding; not to create hermaphrodite monstrosities like ships with all sails set, showing their keels and bottoms at the same time. Even if hobbiests and old seamen continue to produce these perverted deformities, modelers and craftsmen should be faithful to their art. It is likely that I will be accused of repetition on this subject because I have been harping on its importance all through the text in order to wean others away from this despicable practice.

My visualization of suitable rigs that bring out the natural beauty and retain the ship's normal surroundings is as follows:

Bermuda News Bureau
Symbolic Model Of Cotton Blossom IV

Symbolic Rigged Models

The importance of symbolic rigged model yachts is becoming more and more manifest because they can be exhibited in offices and homes where space is limited. The elimination of tall spars and rigging which are common to all yachts of a given class, provides greater emphasis on essential features of the hull and deck layout. Variations in sail and rigging plans of yawls like Cotton Blossom IV are quite unimportant. What is necessary is the unrestricted view of the hull lines, sheer and overhangs. People want to see what makes the ship go. The clean sweep of Cotton Blossom's hull lines from pulpit to aspit are shown in bolder relief because there is no distraction by non-essentials.

This model was shown for the first time at the Royal Bermuda Yacht Club during the Ocean Race of 1960, and was acclaimed by all the senior yachtsmen, because the method allows a larger scale to be used on deck fittings and hull, with half the space that the older types required.

Many owners of private yachts make alterations in deck layout and gadgets to suit their own purposes. Half models cannot exhibit these changes which are precious to the owner. The larger scale permitted on symbolic rigged models provides room for every item. There is a firm in England (mentioned in the appendix) that can supply working models of all the deck fittings winches, anchor cranes, windlasses, binnacles, etc. These items add to the appearance of the finished product, enhance the scope of the craftsman and increases the value of the model.

Cotton Blossom IV nee Halloween was built by Will Fyfe in 1932. She is 72' long and 14' beam. Nothing that has been built since reaches or surpasses the beauty of Fyfe's masterpiece.

This model was built for her owner and skipper Walter Wheeler Jr., Stamford, Conn.

Full Rigged Models

To get the best results in full rigged models, canvas may be included, providing the sails are furled on the yards, and the hull is the waterline type. In this case the yards are lowered and all the sails' control lines are in position. The waterline hull enhances the sheer lines of the model and depicts its true stance and trim of a ship at anchor. Sails furled or stowed on the yards do not hide the graceful rigging lines or require a glass case to protect them.

Art collectors and connoisseurs prize this type of model very highly, when made by a careful craftsman. Square riggers, windjammers and galleons are the most suitable for this occasion. This type of model will require at least 1,000 hours of labor and it is essential that a worthwhile ship be selected. Nondescript ships selected for sentimental or patriotic reasons would detract greatly from the value and rarity of the completed model.

Rigged Models

Sails are not included on models of this type only the standing rigging, the ties, if any, and the halyards and braces that control the spars are necessary (see illustrations of Ariel and Cedrene). Some people claim that this type of rigging produces the most graceful models because there is an unrestricted view of all the rigging lines. Waterline hulls are the most suitable for this purpose because they simulate a ship afloat and make the finished model look more natural.

Ariel and Cedrene happened to be special types of ships whose details had to be resurrected by research. In both instances the complete hulls were required. When building ships or barkes of the nineteenth century whose hull lines are more or less standard, water-line models are both applicable and graceful. These models when rigged do not require glass cases for protection unless they are to be exhibited in public places.

Sail Outlined Models

On sail outlined models a line is fastened to the top yard arm, then down to the yard arms below, and end up on the lower yard arm. This method portrays the size and shape of all the square sails above the courses. It is particularly applicable to old time ships and galleons because, up to the mid-1600s, the top yards and sail heads were about one-half the length of the next one below. It is shown clearly on both views of Sea Venture. It is a recent innovation devised to simulate the sail pattern of rigged models since canvas went out of fashion. It does not hide any of the rigging, as canvas did, and never becomes misshapen.

When models are built from research, and no scale drawings are available, the lengths of upper yards and the shape of the sails are very important. The date on which the ship was built governs the length of the upper yards. A good rule to follow is to allow 40% of the next yard below prior to 1600, increasing to 50% by the mid-1600s. Bonnets went out of fashion about 1670, and reefs were introduced; then the proportions increased to 70%. Nothing spoils the symmetry of an old time ship more than oversize upper yards.

Although this sail outline method applies to all square rigged ships, I doubt if it would be suitable on nineteenth century ships unless the upper yards are shown on the drawings much shorter than they usually are.
It is likely that the perfectionist will scorn improvements like this, on the grounds that the ship did not carry sail outline ropes; but there is such a thing as model maker's prerogative something like poetic license, that gives him the right to beautify his model in any way that does not interfere with the period, scale, lines and rigging of the ship. Paint colors may be changed, metal finishes altered and woods substituted. All are within the orbit of good craftsmanship.

Ship Identification

Almost every sailing vessel that comes into port sets off an argument concerning her proper rig. Even Port Authorities and reporters put an inaccurate label on her. The modeler must know the correct rigging plan from memory. To visualize and simplify the patterns of rigging, the written word is much more potent to the memory than visual pictures, because you can carry the mind's picture with you. Despite the multiplicity of stays and yards on full rigged ships, barkes and brigs, there is actually only one mast to consider and memorize; the others are repetitions of the first one. The main mast on a full rigged ship is an exact copy of all the others, which can be forgotten during this memory lesson.

The main mast is divided into five sections:

I. The main mast itself ends at the first doubling. The yard on this lower mast is the main yard and the sail is the mainsail or main course sail.

II. The next section upward is the main topmast. The yard is the main topsail yard and the sail is the main topsail.

III. Next above the topmast is the main topgallant mast; the yard is the main topgallant yard and the sail is the main topgallant sail.
IV. Beyond the topgallant mast is the main royal mast; the yard is the main royal yard and the sail is the main royal sail.

V. Above the royal mast, some full riggers carried a skysail pole. The sail on this section is the mail skysail, and the yard is the main skysail yard.

Once the pattern of masts, yards and sails on the mainmast is memorized, the complete sail plan of all masts on all types of square riggers is visualized. Sails, yards and stays are always named after the masts that support them.

Full rigged ships are easily identified because they have yards and square sails on all their masts. The three masted ships are called Clippers, and the four masted ones are Windjammers.
Barkes are three and four masted vessels with yards and square sails on all masts except the after one, which is fore and aft rigged. Barken-tines are three and four masted vessels with yards and square sails on the fore mast only. All the other masts are fore and aft rigged.

Brigs are two masted vessels with yards and square sails on both masts, also a gaff rigged, fore and aft sail on the main mast.

Brigantines are two masted vessels with yards and square sails on the foremast, with the mainmast fore and aft rigged. However, it is legitimate for a brigantine to carry topsail yards and sails above the fore and aft rigged mainsail.

Galleons were generally large Spanish and Portuguese vessels and were sometimes barkes rigged with a spritsail under the bowsprit, as a balancing sail, and a lateen sail for steering purposes. The name galleon when applied to English shippes is more poetical than nautical, and was no doubt confined to the Royal Stuart age of splendor between 1606 and 1637. They were larger than the barkes, having gallant sails on fore and main, and a topsail on the mizzen. Any departure from these standard rigs is known as Hermaphrodite, or in seamen's language Jackass Rigged.

Fore and Aft schooners are two or three masted vessels, either with a gaff rigged sail and a gaff topsail on each mast, or the more modern Bermuda rigged sails in the same order. Staysail schooners are two, three or four masted vessels with a staysail and trysail between each mast.

Topsail schooners are two or three masted vessels rigged as above, with one or more topsail yards and sails on the foremast only. These topsail schooners are sometimes confused with the brigantines and barkentines, but there is no actual resemblance between them. Topsail schooners carry square rigged topsails above the fore and aft rigged foresail; the others have square sails only on their foremast.

Ketches are racing yachts, having two masts: a very tall main mast and a shorter mizzen. They carry two or more headsails and are generally Bermuda rigged today. Ketches are the oldest of all rigs in use today and can easily be identified by the position of the mizzen mast which is stepped forward of the steering wheel.

Yawls are similar to ketches in sail plan, but the mizzen mast is shorter than the ketches' and is stepped aft of the steering wheel.

The only visible difference between the cutter and the sloop is in the head sails. Sloops are single masted with only one jib, while the cutter has a single mast also, but generally carries two or more jibs. The cutter's mast is often placed further aft than the sloop's. All these yachts originally had short bowsprits, but the adoption of the Bermuda rig has changed the head sail layout to some extent.

The Professional Touch

Draftsmen who make the drawings of old time ships and galleons quite often err in their portrayal of essential items which mislead the craftsmen and give the finished model an unprofessional look. It is not good enough to assume that any of these flagrant errors will stand up to the inspection of experts on fine ornament, art dealers, curators of museums, etc. The craftsman, in addition to his own skillful work, must use the patterns of the period in which the ship belonged. I have only sufficient space to discuss the three most flagrant abuses of professionalism, viz.: length and proportions of the yards on square riggers; proper flags of the period, and figureheads.

Yard Proportions

I have already commented on proportions of 16th and 17th century yards in the standardization of rigging. The St. George, built in 1701, and the Constitution, built nearly a century later, show little change in yard proportions of 70% of the next yard below, which were standard lengths on the Prince of 1670. There seems to be no substantiated record of measurement for the mid-nineteenth century American clipper, but Lubbock in his China Clippers shows a much more graceful proportion of sail plans than the present drawings exhibit. It is extremely doubtful if yard proportions were more than 75% of the next yard below prior to 1865. The craftsman, who is endowed with the model maker's prerogative to make slight alterations that add to the beauty of his model, would be well within his rights to use these proportions.

Figureheads

We don't know when the practice of using figureheads symbolic of the ship's name started. The old Pelican, built in pre-Armada days, probably 1560, carried the bird pelican as her figurehead. When Drake outfitted her for his circumnavigation of the globe circa 1580, she was re-named Golden Hinde; then she wore the golden hind figurehead whether the name of the ship was symbolic of her crest or figurehead, or vice versa, I don't know. It is certain, however, that this practice lasted for nearly a century, because Revenge of 1590 wore the lion rampant with drawn sword as an emblem of revenge. Sea Venture, 1608, wore the sea dog the emblem of venture at sea, and Pett's mighty Sovereign of the Seas wore King Edgar riding over the Seven Kings as an emblem of sovereignty. When the practise ended is obscured by the tumultuous upheavals of the Commonwealth and Restoration. Not even Samuel Pepys, who compiled DEANNE'S DOCTRINE OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, 1687, mentions the subject. However, the practise was a good one for the modeler and research worker. If the ship's name is known, her figurehead can usually be obtained from the College of Heralds. The finding of a figurehead among the fragments of an old wreck establishes the name of the ship. Figureheads are symbolic of a particular ship and provide greater authenticity to the model.

Flags

There is a lithograph showing a Clipper Ship circa 1850 flying the Stars and Stripes with 48 stars in it that was first authorised on July 4th, 1912. There is a model of Mayflower, not very far away from Bunker Hill, flying the Union Jack that did not come into being until Ireland joined the Union in 1801. In both cases the workmanship is excellent, but such "boners" destroy the value of the object. Not only is the period inaccurate but the proportions of the flags are impossible. The proper design and proportions of the American flags from 1777 until 1912 are shown in the following table. The standard lengths are 1.9 and widths 1 which is almost twice as long as it is wide.

1777    13 stripes         13 stars.
1795    15 stripes         15 stars.
1818    13 stripes         20 stars.
1819    13 stripes         21 stars.
1820    13 stripes         23 stars.
1822    13 stripes         24 stars.
1836    13 stripes         25 stars.
1837    13 stripes         26 stars.
1845    13 stripes         27 stars.
1846    13 stripes         28 stars.
1847    13 stripes         29 stars.
1848    13 stripes         30 stars.
1851    13 stripes         31 stars.
1858    13 stripes         32 stars.
1859    13 stripes         33 stars.
1861    13 stripes         34 stars.
1862    13 stripes         35 stars.
1865    13 stripes         36 stars.
1867    13 stripes         37 stars.
1877    13 stripes         38 stars.
1890    13 stripes         43 stars.
1891    13 stripes         44 stars.
1896    13 stripes         45 stars.
1908    13 stripes         46 stars.
1912    13 stripes         48 stars.

British Flags

Supplementary flags and ensigns have changed so greatly over the centuries that space is lacking to record them. All that can be outlined are the ships' colors or standards. Late Tudor ships, from 1560 to 1606, wore St. George's Cross, about 2 to 1 in proportion, on their mains, and the green and white Tudor ensign at the stern. Some war vessels and Royal ships wore the green and white ensign on the fore also. These Tudor ensigns appear to be about 10 to 7 in proportion.

In 1606 the Union flag, consisting of St. George's Cross and St. Andrew's Cross, with proportions about 10 to 9, came into use. This flag was worn on the main, with St. George's Cross on the fore, if the ship was English. If she was Scottish, St. Andrew's Cross was worn on the fore instead. Most.of the models of this period that I have seen show another St. George's cross on the after staff.

Except for a short period during the hectic days of the Commonwealth, St. George's Cross and the Union flag continued to be used on English ships without major changes. St. George's ensign in red, white and blue was adopted in 1707; then the "red duster" appeared for the first time. Its proportions were about 10 to 8 and remained unchanged until 1801 when Ireland joined the Union; then St. Patrick's cross was added in the jack. For modelling purposes this red ensign with proportions 9 to 4 still remains unchanged.

Spanish Flags

The only Spanish flags of interest to the modeler are those worn by Columbus' ships in 1492, and by the treasure ships of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The drawings of Santa Maria, procurable from your supplier, provide full information on flags and banners worn by the first expedition.

Spain seems to have had several different maritime flags in use during this age of discovery. The Armada was decked out with flags and banners of religious motifs; the Netherlands fleet wore a tri-color of red, white and yellow with horizontal stripes, and the West Indian ships wore the red ragged cross of Burgundy from the mid-16th century onwards. This ensign is detailed because there are still many old wrecks of this treasure fleet lying about the reefs of Caribbean and other islands that may be salvaged by modern equipment.

The Spanish ensign, or Cross of Burgundy, consists of a white field, about 10 to 7 in proportion, with a ragged horizontal cross in red, stretching from corner to corner. It is the same shape as St. Andrew's and St. Patrick's crosses in the British ensign and is easily made by hand.

Other Foreign Flags

The ships of France, Portugal, Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Holland had little to do with American history except the Dutch ship Half Moon (for which plans and details are available). Their maritime flags are too numerous and varied to be described in this short summary, but full information may be obtained from the Admiralty book FLAGS OF ALL NATIONS.

The Position of Flags

On models of British and American ships the correct position of flags is essential. Flags are regulated by the position of the ship that the model represents.

Waterline, scenic models with sails set, depict a ship at sea; then the ensign is on the tip of the after gaff. No other flags are worn.

On symbolic rigged model yachts, which represent a ship out of water, no flags are worn.

On rigged models that show the ship without canvas, whether water-line or complete hull are shown, the ensign should be on the after staff and the house flag on the main.

On sail outline rigged galleons, St. George's Cross on the fore and on the after staff. The Union flag without St. Patrick's Cross on the main. The mizzen is to be left bare unless the ship carried an Admiral; in that event the forked white pennant is worn there.

While knowledge of the above mentioned details is essential to the craftsman, it does not mean he should become a slave to perfectionism. Goose stepping to exact details and scales of drawings of old time ships often borders on fanaticism and reduces the craftsman to a mere copyist. Details portrayed on the drawings we work from are more or less guesswork. No one actually knows the exact size or shape of artifacts used two or three centuries ago. There isn't a scrap of evidence to prove that armaments, deck fittings and other gear followed the same scale as that of the ship. They were articles designed to perform their task and stand the strain that the circumstances required.
Beauty and craftsmanship need not be sacrificed for mechanical exactness, unless such details are verified by substantial proof.

Just so long as we portray the hull pattern and dimensions, the correct armament and rigging, the quaintness and colorings of the period to which the ship belonged, artistry and craftsmanship can fashion the model into a masterpiece of fine ornament and of great beauty and value. It is not the ship experts, or the nautical men who will be the judges, but the connoiseurs and art experts who will assess your handiwork.

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